Culture Jamming
Dagny Nome
"Promotional Culture - Seminar in Intercultural Management",
Copenhagen Business School
Table of Contents
Introduction
What is Branding?
Semiotics of Branding
Brands and Individual
Identity
Culture Jamming - a War
on Brands
Inspiration - a
Line of Revolutionaries
Détournement
(Promotional)
Culture
Is
Culture Jamming Just the Current Source of Cool?
Culture
Jamming Influences Corporate Reputation and Identity
Culture Jamming is a Vector
Conclusion
Notes
References
Walking down the street I pass a Nike poster. I hardly notice it, living in the city I am
surrounded by commercial messages. But something is not right with this one. I look
again. What happened to the usual black athlete? Why is there a woman carrying a
child, in exactly the same pose as the athlete occupied in the posters I'd already seen?
And the text - it describes working conditions in Indonesian factories where Nike shoes
are made. The final message is "..so think globally before you decide it's so cool to
wear Nike." It is clearly not an ad sponsored by Nike, yet the visual layout seems the
same. That is why I at first thought it was an ad for Nike, and mentally approached it
that way. And that is why the negative message surprises me, and ultimately, why I will
remember it. But how will my behaviour, especially the one as consumer, be influenced
by a negative message about a brand I already use?
A lot of people would at first glance believe they were looking at an ad for Nike, the
sportswear producer. That is part of the power of successful branding today - being
able to create an image, a feel that the consumer remembers. This parodied Nike
poster is an example of culture jamming, a practice that uses exactly this strength to
fight the brands with which it originated. A widely used term, definitions and groups that
subscribe to it abound. For some, culture jamming is more or less anything that mixes
art, parody, media and the countercultural, outsider stance(1). Current examples of this
would be the Guerrilla Girls that demonstrate outside art galleries and museums
wearing guerrilla masks to highlight the exclusion of female artists, and the fabulous
Reclaim the Streets parties taking over parts of highways and creating massive traffic
jams while they plant trees in the asphalt.
My focus will be on the forms of culture jamming that concentrate on destroying the
value of commercial brands, and I shall use the term in this sense. To understand their
function in the current promotional discourse, I shall describe the context in which they
operate, their tactics and motivation. I will mainly use The Adbusters Media Foundation
(AMF), a Canadian based culture jamming group, as an example. Finally, I will discuss
whether culture jamming as a countercultural movement can aspire to be a real threat
to corporations, even if its expression are co-opted into the brand marketing strategies.
Or does it, in fact, function as a strong visual part of a political discourse?
In order to get a grasp on culture jamming, it is important to understand how
corporations sell their products through branding. A brand is a name and/or symbol that
signals the source of a product and differentiates it from competitors. The value of a
brand is often measured in brand equity "..a set of assets (and liabilities) linked to a
brand's name and symbol that adds to (or subtracts from) the value provided by a
product or services to a firm and/or that firm's customers."(2) Brand value is a significant
contributor to the capital value of a company(3), and the value of many major
corporations' brands is far higher than the value of its physical assets(4). Building
positive brand equity is a long and costly process, and for some organisations, like
Ford and Nike, it has become the main focus of their activities(5).
Branding efforts are increasingly aimed at building the corporate brand, rather than the
product brand. Competition on a global level, fragmentation and increased complexity
of traditional markets, together with more sophisticated customers(6) are factors that
have inspired this shift, and these are in turn increasing in importance by the spread of
corporate branding. Establishing a global brand and treating the world as one market
creates economies of scale. However, due to the costs of establishing such a global
brand it makes sense to promote the corporation, which is likely to cover several
products and be useful for longer than one of its products, often soon to be replaced
with another one. An example of this would be Nike: The corporate name or its logo,
the swoosh, is visible in all promotional activities. The Nike name is then used as a
corporate universe in which the separate product brands belong, like the Air Jordan
trainer. By building a corporate brand, corporations build a brand universe, an
overarching dimension that can be used to consecrate value on the various products
and services it sells.
Branding is done through promotional activities on two levels - direct and indirect.
Direct branding is basically advertising, where the brand is the protagonist of the story.
In indirect branding, this role is seemingly given to another, outside party, but the aim is
nevertheless to promote the brand. Brian Moeran describes promotions as "a form of
bricolage, combining familiar ingredients to create novel products and events."(7)
Through such diverse promotional activities as celebrity endorsement, product
placement in films, funding various cultural events from rock festivals to car racing,
corporations have sought to have their brands associated with, and indeed seen as
representing, the cultural values represented by the activities they sponsor. Brands
increasingly sell through promoting a lifestyle, a certain way to be and feel, as
connected to the brand. Promotional activities are aimed at accumulating "symbolic
capital", that at later stage is converted into "economic capital" when consumers buy
the product(8).
But not only do corporations seek to associate their brands through sponsoring cultural
events. They also aim to take those associations out of the representational realm and
make them a lived reality through creating their own promotional activities. This is a
further sophistication of the process of accumulating "symbolic capital". It is in this spirit
we have seen the emergence of Driversfest, a Volkswagen music festival held outside
New York. Celebrities are created, not just used as endorsement; in the way that Nike
elevated Michael Jordan and promoted him as the embodiment of age-old ideals
surrounding sport. Nike also promoted these ideals within their own chain of flagship
retail stores, Nike Town, which functions both as a temple to sports and a regular retail
store. Catalogues created by clothes companies take on the look of lifestyle
magazines. Diesel has adapted this stance into the ironic, and publishes the online
magazine "It's Real - Tomorrows Truth Today", styled as a gossip paper covering the
seedy scandals surrounding Joanna, a fictional celebrity.
Marketing academics like David Aaker stress the importance of creating a brand
identity. To create positive brand equity, he claims, the brand must be defined in more
dimensions than merely as a product, most notably as personalities, like Nike "exciting,
provocative, spirited, cool, innovative, and aggressive; into health and fitness and
excellence"(9). By building such a comprehensive map of the brand, it is intended that all
communication from the corporation to its various constituencies will be coherent and
thus enforce the distinctiveness of the brand.
Using Saussure's approach to semiotics, the process Aaker is concerned with is
creating and enforcing the signifier, the mental concept related to the signified, the
physical sign(10). Applied to brands, the projected identity is the signifier and the logo is
the signified. In trying to define what the sign means to us, Saussure states that we can
only answer in the light of what the sign does not mean. According to this model of
meaning, we use the signifieds to divide reality up and categorise it in order to reach
understanding. This system of sensemaking reflects a social constructivist
epistemological viewpoint, also seen in Karl Weick's writings on sensemaking cycles as
a way of reducing equivocality in our enacted environment(11). Returning to the Nike
example, we gather that a Nike logo is given different meaning in different parts of the
world, and in different societal subcultures/groups - but the logo is recognised due to
its ubiquity.
As I shall return to at a later stage, culture jammers believe that brands are a damaging
influence on our personal identities and, therefore, on society. Before we can move on
to consider such a statement, however, we have to explore whether there exists a
relationship between brands and individual identity. For the purposes of this paper, I
find it useful to apply a definition of identity that sees it as a general, if individualised,
framework for understanding oneself that is formed and sustained via social interaction.
Individuals learn to assign themselves socially constructed labels through interaction
with others, and identity is thus fundamentally a relational and comparative concept(12).
Using this definition as a starting point, I suggest that constructed brand identities
consistently projected form a fictional "other" that we also relate to and compare
ourselves with. This is particularly relevant in the case of people inhabiting urban
environments, where these brand identities are projected in abundance through
promotional messages. Brands then become part of our enacted environments, and
thus influence how we construct our identities. People living in urban environments are
surrounded by promotional messages, and I believe that in this case a dividing line
between promotional culture and culture is no longer meaningful.
Tom Vanderbilt uses the notion of the advertised life, "an emerging mode of being in
which advertising not only occupies every last negotiable public terrain, but in which it
penetrates the cognitive process, invading consciousness to such a point that one
expects and looks for advertising."(13) This mode of being has become difficult to discern,
he claims, as media have become the surroundings.
Brands have even become cult objects, and posters of advertisements are sold as hip
accessories; we carry brand names on our bodies as clothing; we use brand slogans in
our everyday speech. Some even wear brand symbols as tattoos - the Nike swoosh
has been rather popular inscribed in one's navel. In Wernick's words "..the range of
cultural phenomena which, at least as one of their functions, serve to communicate a
promotional message has become, today, virtually co-extensive with our produced
symbolic world." Branding influences our taste, which classifies us. What brands we
consume say something to others about who we are, and thus influence our identities.
The Adbusters Media Foundation (AMF) describe themselves and their goals like this;
"We are a global network of artists, writers, students, educators and entrepreneurs who
want to launch the new social activist movement of the information age. Our goal is to
galvanize resistance against those who would destroy the environment, pollute our
minds and diminish our lives. .. We want a world in which the economy and ecology
resonate in balance. We try to coax people from spectator to participant in this quest.
We want folks to get mad about corporate disinformation, injustices in the global
economy, and any industry that pollutes our physical or mental commons."(14) AMF
publishes the quarterly magazine "Adbusters" and the website www.adbusters.org, as
well as offer its services through the advertising agency Powershift, which claims only
to take on campaigns for organisations with goals corresponding to AMFs own. Kalle
Lasn runs AMF, and has recently published "Culture Jam" to explain the movement and
give instructions in how to live an uncommercialised life.
The Adbusters magazine is like an exquisitely wrapped piece of barbed wire. Thick
paper, stylish visual layout; like the jammed advertisements it resembles something it's
not - a glossy fashion or lifestyle magazine. Open it, and the barbed wire's sting is
found in articles that seek to expose the underlying tactics and tools used when
promoting brands or expound on brands' dangerous influence. The just as stylish
website contains, apart from Adbusters magazine excerpts, information on AMF
campaigns, such as the annual TV-turnoff week, and coverage on other culture
jamming activities.
Lasn cites the French avant-garde group The Situationists as his inspiration. As a
movement existing in the 50s and 60s, it was critical to the influence of the modern
media culture, or what they called the spectacle of modern life. This omnipresent
phenomenon, everything from billboards to art exhibitions to TV, refused human beings
the experience of the authentic(15). It had kidnapped our real lives. Kalle Lasn of The
Media Foundation, a Canadian-based culture jamming organisation, uses this line of
rhetoric in justifying an attack on commercial brands when he says: "Culture jamming
is, at root, just a metaphor for stopping the flow of spectacle long enough to adjust your
set." or "..breaking the syntax, and replacing it with a new one. The new syntax carries
the instructions for a whole new way of being in the world."(16)
The final goal is a cultural revolution, or in Lasn's words, "an about-face in our values,
lifestyles and institutional agendas. A reinvention of the American dream."(17) He sees
the current culture jamming movement as part of a "revolutionary continuum that
includes, .. , early punk rockers, the 60s hippie movement, ..the Situationists.., whose
chief aim was to challenge the prevailing ethos in a way that was so primal and
heartfelt it could only be true."(18) The revolution depicted by Lasn is one where the
media-consumer trance is broken, the power of corporations seriously weakened and
authenticity rediscovered. In fact, this also places culture jammers on a continuum of
youth rebelling against the status quo, where the young rebel against the old and
established before they fade into complacent middle age and in turn are challenged by
the next generation of youth.
The
culture jammers of today borrow more from the Situationists, and more specifically
Guy Debord, when they speak of détournement as their main tool. The action
of détournement means to lift an image, message or artefact out of its
context to create a new meaning(19). The most
advanced culture jams are counter-messages that mimic the corporation's own
method of communication, and sends a message, a subvertisement, starkly
at odds with the one originally intended. Often, but not always, the brand name
or logo is slightly altered, but the visual recognition is still assured. The
Nike parody at the top of page 1 is a good example of this. The culture jammers
call this "a re-routing of images to reclaim them and to devalue the currency
of commercial images"(20). The Billboard Liberation
Front jams advertisement billboards, like the simple, but powerful jam on Exxon
that appeared just after the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill, "Shit happens - New
Exxon" or on a billboard originally advertising Gordon's Gin, "Gordon's Gin
- It Fucks You Up".
Using Saussure's framework, this can be explained as adding negative messages to
the sign's signifier, and the goal is that consumers will include these messages when
they go through their sensemaking cycles. Promotion transfers meaning on to a product
from the outside(21) and it is this process that the culture jamming seeks to enter, by
jamming the original coherence between the message sent through product design,
packaging and promotional messages. The acts of culture jamming are thus intended to
throw a spanner into the integrated system of production/promotion which, by the
corporations, are deployed together in a mutually referring and self-confirming way.
The culture jammers believe that the consumer culture where brands live has been
allowed to occupy too much space in our lives. They believe that this influence is
damaging, and paint a bleak picture of feeble consumers standing by while
corporations are taking over the world; "American culture is no longer created by the
people. Our stories, .. are now told by distant corporations with something to sell as
well as something to tell. Brands, products, fashions, celebrities, entertainments - the
spectacles that surround the production of culture - are our culture now. Our role is
mostly to listen and watch - and then, based on what we have heard and seen, to
buy."(22), and state the need for a return to authenticity, a second American revolution.
Culture is thus elevated to something pure, almost mythical, which is being soiled by
the intrusion of commerciality. Wernick states that promotion must be defined not by
what it says, but by what it does. And what promotion does, according to Wernick, is to
force the entry of the economic world into the cultural, and thereby devaluing the latter.
His view thus reflects that of the culture jammers.
Promoting a brand can be seen as a cycle. Brands are promoting, and promoted,
through cultural references, which in turn influence our perceived realities and
behaviour. In Paul du Gay's words, this is "labelling from above". Just as crucial is "the
actual behaviour of those so labelled", which leads our attention to how we as
consumers engage with brands. Through consumption, meaning is altered(23).
Proponents of what we can call ironic consumption think that meaning is drastically
changed through how a product is consumed. This, then, is supposed to deny the
power of the values and lifestyle promoted by the brand. At the core, however, lies the
undeniable truth that as long as the product is consumed, revenue is created for the
producer. And as the consumer imbues the product with new meaning, he becomes a
producer of meaning that the original producer then consumes. The wheel continues to
turn.
The culture jammers see themselves as part of a revolutionary continuum. This is a
crucial part of what Tom Franks calls the co-optation theory; "faith in the revolutionary
potential of "authentic" counterculture combined with the notion that business mimics
and mass-produces fake counterculture in order to cash in on a particular demographic
and to subvert the great threat that "real" counterculture represents."(24) Through co-optation, therefore, we get a cultural perpetual motion machine, where corporations
feed off countercultural trends in order to sell their brands.
What once was counterculture is now abundant in advertisements. "Never Work", "It is
Forbidden to Forbid" and "Take your desires elsewhere" - all subversive messages in
the sixties(25), sound eerily like Sprite's "Image is Nothing" and countless others. What
was once the main enemy - the conformity ridden Company Man, was quickly used in
marketing and management fashions alike. "Don't liberate me - I'll take care of that",
again graffiti from the sixties, has the ring of neo-human relations rhetoric on fostering
entrepreneurialism within corporations.(26)
So the cultural jammers of today have moved on. They attack the communication of
corporations. It is easy to simply say - so what? The ironic stance they take is already
co-opted in advertising, which has become pre-jammed. One of the popular tools of
culture jammers is juxtaposing First World icons with Third World scenes to highlight
inequalities caused by globalisation, as in the Nike jam on page 1. Diesel jeans uses
this technique in promoting itself through the fictional Brand 0. Ads within ads, a
glamorous blonde is pictured on the side of a bus that is overflowing with frail-looking
North Korean workers. The ad is selling "Brand 0 Diet - there's no limit to how thin you
can get". Lifestyle brands are engaging in a frantic hunt for cool and hip when they buy
reports such as the L Report, sold for $20,000 a year, which presumably reveals the
current cool trends that as of yet have not been commercialised(27).
Culture jamming gets
our initial attention mostly because of the innovative way in which they use imagery,
striving to shock and provoke. In this way they are actually enlarging the amount of
expressions that are deemed acceptable by the public. What was once provoking, like
billboards of Marlboro Country superimposed on images of urban decay, now forms the
common element in Diesel's Brand 0 campaign. The use of the original technique by
culture jammers consecrated it as cool, and Diesel can now use this to their own
benefit. Seen from this angle, culture jamming is working against itself.
On top of that, the corporations will probably win out. They squash dissent by their
sheer bulk of advertising, and if anti-corporate culture jamming is only a reflection of
the current cool, it will probably change soon anyway. The Adbusters Media
Foundation is denied buying tv-time, save on CNN headlines, presumably as their
messages run counter to commercial interests(28).
There is, however, a change from earlier times' culture jamming. Earlier counterculture
movements found their main enemy in "the establishment". Such a notion could easily
be incorporated into corporate advertising, applying the revolutionary spirit in
promoting brands. Now, however, the main enemy is the brands themselves. Cultural
jammers seek to expose the oxymoronic nature of the brands and the working practices
of the corporations they represent. Even if co-opted, this focus on brands, together with
increased use of corporate branding, means that corporations are more sensitive to
public opinion. Culture jamming can be a tool to serve a higher, political purpose.
For corporations, increased interaction between "insiders" and "outsiders" through
networking, alliances and the like has lead to a boundary breakdown between internal
and external. Increased transparency has had the same effect, and has lead to a
pressure on corporations to demonstrate internal coherence with external branding(29).
Image and reputation is of greater value and the financial markets often react strongly
to negative media coverage of a corporation. Events that have a negative effect on an
organisation's reputation can also threaten the organisation's identity, which in turn
influences motivation and commitment amongst employees(30).
Nike, Disney and several other well-known brands have been strongly criticised for the
labour conditions in their overseas production facilities, most notably in Asia. Royal
Dutch/Shell has been on the receiving end of public protest because of their
involvement in Nigeria and their plans to dispose of the oilrig Brent Spar by sinking it in
the North Sea. Rather than simply do outward damage control, many corporations
claim they have taken the accusations seriously and that they have affected the way
they do business. They acknowledge the need to take public opinion into account;
human rights are included in mission statements and industry-wide labour standards
developed. The role of non-governmental organisations has changed as many function
as advisors to corporations on areas like human rights, environmentalism and labour
conditions(31). Nike, for example, publishes the results of external audits performed on
their production facilities on their corporate website, Nikebiz.
Can we influence our culture only as consumers of it? The above arguments point
towards that our roles as consumers are paramount in influencing corporations.
However, perhaps the argument can be turned around - through the role as consumer
of promotional culture we can influence areas of concern related to other aspects of our
lives. Politics enter consumerism when Nike, Reebok or Starbucks Coffee are
boycotted because of labour conditions or human rights issues related to their business
practices or the geographical location of where they do business. Culture jamming in
this case functions as a marketing tool to get attention to these political issues.
According to du Gay, meaning is created in dislocation. Dislocation is inevitable, and
occurs in our case when a projected brand identity is unable to constitute itself fully as
an objectivity. In order to be constituted as such, the brand depends on a constitutive
outside, the consumers. Put simply, a brand identity must be accepted as such by
consumers for it to be perceived as real. Du Gay calls uses the notion of vectors pulling
in different directions. This creates a dynamic process, where meaning and perceived
reality is the outcome. I have argued that the massive presence of promotional
messages can be seen as part of our perceived realities. Thus, producers and
consumers of brands are vectors. Culture jamming makes up a third. Pointing out the
presence of promotions everywhere, using marketing tools to ridicule and criticise
corporations and their brands, the rhetoric about authenticity lost - this provides a new
vector that does its best to engage in the consumer's sensemaking cycles.
Corporations
are generally reluctant to engage in conflict with the culture jammers. One
reason is
that when they do, as when McDonalds took two British activists to court over an anti-McDonalds leaflet, the outcome is often bad press for the corporation regardless of the
outcome of the court case. The culture jammers are good at getting attention, as in
1992, when Absolut Vodka threatened to sue AMF over its "Absolut Nonsense" parody,
but backed down when AMF in turn went to the press and challenged Absolut Vodka to
a debate about the harmful effects of alcohol(32). Another, perhaps more important,
aspect is that the culture jammers represent the essence of what so many brands want
to be - they're cool. If corporations go after them they, and thereby the corporate
brand, would be uncool, one of the worst things to be within lifestyle branding.
On one level, culture jamming Adbusters style is branding, and it can be seen as the
marketing division of anti-corporate groups, where AMF gains credibility through its
association with other pressure groups and non-governmental organisations. The
latter, in turn, gain publicity as AMF and other related organisations grab our attention
through its strong visual focus. AMF even sells culture jamming accessories at its
website, for which it has been heavily criticised by other culture jamming groups. This
criticism is hardly a surprise, when one of the ideals AMF promotes is to lower
consumption. It also reflects a more general tendency, described by Bourdieu and
simplified here, of how the disavowal of money in creating symbolic capital leaves the
proponent wide open for criticism as it is in reality a way to create economic capital.
Thus, the ways AMF finances its operations are crucial to whether it is perceived as
"genuine".
King Solomon said, in the Ecclesiastes; "For with much wisdom comes much sorrow;
the more knowledge, the more grief." Rather than talk about the choices facing King
Solomon, I will steal his words and apply them to consumers today. Perhaps culture
jamming will alienate the consumer rather than enlist her support? If we create our
identities using brands, will we then be grateful for someone telling us how stupid we
are to be so easily seduced as when we bought those fancy Nike shoes or used the
popular anti-depressive Prozac to get rid of the winter blues? In the short term, I think
that would be too much to hope for.
Culture jamming is, however, about more than being part of the promotional discourse.
It is political, and when effective, makes consumerism political. Their main influence is
thus in the realm of corporate branding itself. When the corporate brand is paramount,
the various constituencies somehow involved with the organisation expect a higher
degree of transparency, and this in turn makes the ways in which a corporation does
business more open to outside criticism. When corporations brand themselves as
responsible corporate citizens, they are expected to behave as such. Thus, they
become more vulnerable to public opinion, and need to adjust their business practices
to the concerns of consumers. Culture jamming keeps up this pressure through their
provocative marketing and attention-seeking methods.
1.
Dery, Mark (1993) "Culture Jamming: Hacking, Slashing and Sniping at the Empire of
Signs" (Mark Dery 1993) in Klein, Naomi, p.283
2.
Aaker, David A. (1991), p.7
3.
Ohlins, Wally
4.
Aaker, David A. (1991), p.8
5.
Financial Times, 4th August 1999.
6.
Hatch, Schultz and Williamson
7.
Moeran, Brian
8.
Bourdieu, Pierre, p.76
9.
Aaker, David A.(1996) p.91
10.
Fiske, John, p.44
11.
Weick, Karl
12.
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13.
Tom Vanderbilt, The Advertised Life, in Commodify Your Dissent, p.128
14.
Presentation in "Who are we?" page on AMF homepage; www.adbusters.org
15.
Lasn, Kalle, p.101
16.
ibid p.107
17.
ibid p.88
18.
ibid p.99
19.
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20.
Lasn, Kalle, p.103
21.
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22.
Lasn, Kalle, p.xiii
23.
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24.
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25.
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26.
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27.
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28.
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29.
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31.
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